Animal behaviour and food
1. The optimal theory helps explains animal behaviours when searching for wild food resources. If animals survive and die due to their foraging practices, then the course of natural selection has occurred. Surviving animals will contribute their genes to future generations. Foraging allows individuals to hunt for both small and large game as well as plant foods to support a low population.
2. The Slash and burn method was primarily utilised in forest and woodland environments to create a swidden. The method employs little or no technology and involves cutting down vegetation, allowing the pieces to dry, burning the piece of land, planting, harvesting, and fallowing. The last process is where land is ploughed and left unseeded for a season or more.
3. Silent trade is an exchange of goods without speaking. It was carried out by individuals who could not speak each other’s languages.
4. The Kula ring is an extensive system of intertribal trade among the inhabitants of a ring of islands off Papua New Guinea. It is a type of balanced reciprocity which involves larger social distance than generalized reciprocity and entails a clear obligation to return, within a reasonable time limit, goods of nearly equal value to those given.
5. Potlach feasting were competitive feats held among native Americans and were a form of redistribution. The activity primarily involved collecting goods from members and the giving out the goods in new patterns.
6. The Cargo system involved wealthy community members to hold religious and secular offices known as cargos. Indivuals within each level of prestige had certain responsibilities. They were held for a year and required the individuals to perform several societal duties, and pay for celebrations and feasts.
7. Monogamy – One man to be married to one woman at any given time
True monogamy – one partner for the whole lifetime
Serial monogamy – one partner at any one time
Polygamy – Permits plural marriages
Types of Polygamy:
Polygyny - marriage of one man to several women
Polyandry - the marriage of one woman to several men
8. Fraternal Polyandry is a rare practice where brothers marry a single wife. Tibet is a polyandrous society and the practice is done due to land shortage to keep their father’s land intact. It also occurs due to shortages of females, as well as husbands who are away from their homes for long periods.
9. Consanguinal kins are related by blood; affinal kins are not related by blood (Relatives by marriage)
10. Cross-cousins are children of one’s parents’ siblings of the opposite sex while parallel-cousins are children of a parent’s same-sex siblings(mother’s sisters, father’s brothers).
Long Essay
1. Forms of Economic Exchange
Forms of economic exchange include redistribution, market exchange, and capitalism. In redistribution, “goods are collected from or contributed by members of a group and then given out to the group in a new pattern.” Market exchange involves “selling of goods and services at a monetary price determined, at least in theory, by impersonal market forces.” Capitalism is a system where people work for wages.
2. Primary modes of production recognised by anthropologists include intensive agriculture – involving permanent cultivation, pastoralism –involving moving from place to place with livestock and hunting and gathering – who depended on the natural ecosystem for their survival. Communities practising each of the above include cultivation – Egyptians, pastoralists – the Maasai and hunting and gathering - the Khoi-san.
References
Nanda, S., & Warms, R. L. (2008). Culture counts: A concise introduction to cultural anthropology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.
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